The cultivation of aquatic food such as fish, shellfish and aquatic plants – also known as ‘aquaculture’ – has developed rapidly in recent decades and become a major component of many economies across the world. Aquatic animal production from aquaculture recently surpassed that from wild fish catch, now contributing to more than half of aquatic food for human consumption, with that share expected to increase to almost two-thirds by 2030. As both the global population and per capita seafood consumption rise, aquaculture has become a critical component in alleviating some pressure on wild fish catch and ensuring food security and livelihoods for communities worldwide.
However, the rapid growth of intensive aquaculture has also had unintended negative environmental, social and economic consequences that require a shift to more sustainable aquaculture practices. Major environmental problems include pollution and biodiversity impacts on natural aquatic ecosystems, salinization of groundwater, use of large volumes of freshwater and transmission of diseases to wild fish population.
The accidental introduction of non-native species through aquaculture can have grave impacts on the population of native species, with escaped farmed fish often outcompeting or disrupting local populations. Additionally, aquaculture can contribute to habitat destruction, particularly in coastal ecosystems like mangroves and wetlands. The industry’s reliance on wild-caught fish for feed production further exacerbates the pressure on marine ecosystems, potentially leading to overfishing of certain species.
Measures are needed to ensure that aquaculture is part of the overall transition to equitable, sustainable food systems – and not a hindrance to it.
The following concrete measures can support the effective implementation of sustainable aquaculture management systems, ensuring environmental protection, resource efficiency, and long-term productivity:
- Alternative feeding strategies can improve the Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) by replacing unsustainable inputs (e.g. wild fishes) in aquaculture feed with:
- Terrestrial plant-based protein: Supplement carnivorous fish diets with cereals and pulses and replace fish oil with microalgae and yeast products.
- Waste from seafood processing plants (e.g. heads; innards; trimmings), adding algae or ethanol yeast to boost protein content.
- Locally-available, inexpensive, and underutilized ingredients, such as agricultural byproducts like fruit peels, grain bran, sustainably harvested/raised native insects, or food losses along the food supply chain.
- In extensive aquaculture systems, methods like greenwater ponds can also enhance natural productivity by fertilizing pond water to stimulate phytoplankton growth, providing a key food source for omnivorous species.
- Alternative protein sources such as insect meal and microbial-based proteins.
- Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) collect and remove waste products, uneaten feed and bacteria from the water where fish live. This technology is suitable for indoor and outdoor tank- or pond-based systems. RAS recycles and purifies water within aquaculture systems, thereby reducing the need for excessive water use (100 times less water per kilo of fish than traditional land-based systems) and limiting the negative impacts of aquaculture on surrounding ecosystems. In addition, RAS can help to continuously monitor water quality of aquaculture systems, which reduces disease risks and antibiotics needs.
- Aquaponics are systems that integrate aquaculture with hydroponics, creating a closed-loop system where fish waste provides nutrients for plant growth, and plants help filter and purify the water for fish. This method not only maximizes resource use but also promotes a synergistic relationship between fish farming and plant cultivation. However, aquaponics requires constant access to electricity for power pumps, which can limit its applicability in many rural areas of the Global South. Similarly, biofloc technology uses beneficial microorganisms to convert waste into protein-rich biomass, improving water quality, reducing feed needs, and boosting productivity with minimal environmental impact.
- Precision Aquaculture is the real-time monitoring and management of aquaculture operations, to optimize feeding regimes, monitor environmental conditions, and detect health issues promptly, leading to improved resource efficiency and reduced environmental impact.
- Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) refers to more diverse and less costly approaches that involve farming of multiple species of different trophic levels in the same aquatic space, creating a mutually beneficial relationship between them. For instance, fish farming can be combined with the cultivation of seaweed and filter-feeding organisms. This approach enhances nutrient recycling, reduces waste and promotes a more balanced ecosystem within aquaculture systems.
- Integrated Aquaculture systems like rice-fish farming or planting crops on pond dykes are an effective and cost-efficient solution for small-scale farmers to increase their productivity, lower their costs and diversify their income and nutrition. This is more accessible and more practised in countries of the Global South than IMTA.
- In general, the following measures can be taken to practise regenerative or restorative aquaculture, i.e. commercial or subsistence aquaculture with direct ecological benefits to the environment, which may include practices like seaweed farming or systems like Integrated Aquaculture and IMTA:
- Site farms where environmental benefits can be generated:
- Move offshore aquaculture from coastal areas further into the open ocean. Open oceans have more pristine water and stronger, and steadier currents that continually flush the farms of fish waste and pests. This provides farmed fish with more stable salinity and temperature, making fish less vulnerable to disease and other environmental stressors. However, offshore aquaculture does not resolve many of the environmental concerns associated with conventional coastal systems and needs to be carefully assessed and implemented.
- Establish comprehensive zoning plans that separate aquaculture activities from ecologically sensitive areas such as riverside zones where appropriate, to ensure fish farming operations coexist harmoniously with the surrounding environment.
- Culture species that can provide the environmental benefits intended. Species that will provide the greatest restorative benefits will typically be native. If non-native species are used, these species should already be present in the water body (i.e., naturalized).
- Prioritize farming equipment that enhances the delivery of environmental benefits. For instance, cultivation gear that includes nets or other mesh material can serve as protection from predators for juvenile fish and can increase the abundance of species around the aquaculture site.
- Adopt farming management practices that can enhance local environmental benefits. Practices known to harm water quality and/or habitat include the use of chemicals or therapeutics, regular disruption of submerged aquatic vegetation or other habitats, and inappropriate maintenance that may result in breakaway gear.
- Strive to farm at an intensity or scale that can enhance ecosystem outcomes.
- Recognize the social and economic value of the environmental benefits provided.
Enabling governance measures are key to supporting the implementation of sustainable aquaculture management systems and can include the following:
- Distinguish between extensive and intensive aquaculture production systems. More intensive aquaculture systems have more adverse environmental impacts, while extensive pond farming can be done more sustainably and support food and nutrition security. Agroecology principles can be applied to increase the sustainability of aquaculture production.
- Strong national regulations for responsible aquaculture development building on FAO’s guidelines for sustainable aquaculture.
- Improved promotion and enforcement of standards for biosecurity, environmental protection and zoning.
- Careful zoning and selection of sites for aquaculture.
- Sufficient funding for equity-sensitive national aquaculture research and development, including on fish breeding and strain improvement.
- Strengthen the enabling environment and investment in the development of sustainable fish feed and the feed production sector.
- Equitably integrate small-scale aquaculture farmers in the informal work sector into the formal work sector by supporting the establishment of farmer cooperatives or producer organizations. This can enhance access to social protection, improve bargaining power, and facilitate access to finance for business growth.
- Improved fish health management, including continuous disease monitoring and surveillance within and across national borders, public-private vaccination programmes, breeding for disease resistance and strengthened biosecurity in hatcheries and breeding centres.
- Capacity development through professional training and extension services on technical and financial/business aspects for producers, as well as sustainability for aquaculture producers/fish farmers.
- Investment in improved infrastructure for cold chains, to reduce spoilage, such as transportation and electricity (preferably powered by renewable energy).
- Ensure that data and monitoring systems are well functioning.
- Improve supply chain transparency and traceability.
- Develop mandatory eco-certifications and standards for aquaculture producers, in keeping with the FAO’s technical guidelines on aquaculture certification.
- Promote the consumption of low-trophic level organisms (i.e. herbivores like oysters and mussels) among consumers.
- Promote stakeholder collaboration among industry stakeholders, environmental organizations, and local communities to develop more effective conservation efforts. This collaborative approach can lead to improved habitat restoration and cooperative monitoring of aquaculture sites, ensuring a more comprehensive and inclusive approach to biodiversity protection.
Some key guides to support successful action under this policy option can include:
Guides
FAO Guidelines for Sustainable Aquaculture (GSA)
The GSA contain a set of shared and agreed principles, practices and recommendations that all countries and stakeholders can use to ensure their aquaculture sectors can contribute to food security and nutrition, equitable livelihoods, climate resilience and restored ecosystems.
Best Aquaculture Practices Certification Program
This certification program provides several guidance documents related to sustainable aquaculture.
World Bank AquaInvest Platform
The objective of the AquaInvest Platform is to share knowledge, tools, and best aquaculture practices among practitioners, policymakers, innovators, researchers, and experts, and to provide periodic updates and inform on current development in aquaculture. The platform identifies gaps, innovations, opportunities, and new markets for the aquaculture industry to scale up and alleviate poverty and improve global environmental resilience.
The success of sustainable aquaculture management systems depends on well-designed and effectively implemented interventions. However, these efforts often face technical and non-technical challenges, alongside potential negative externalities and trade-offs that can undermine their outcomes, including the following challenges:
- High startup costs: Implementing sustainable aquaculture practices often involves significant upfront investments in technologies such as RAS, precision equipment and sustainable feed formulations. This financial barrier may be challenging for small-scale farmers or operations with limited resources.
- Technical complexity: Some sustainable practices, such as precision aquaculture and advanced genetics for selective breeding, require specialized knowledge and technical expertise. Small-scale or traditional farmers may face challenges in adopting and adapting to these sophisticated technologies, limiting widespread implementation.
- Limited availability of alternative feeds: While there is a growing interest in replacing traditional fishmeal with alternative protein sources in aquaculture feeds, the widespread availability and cost-effectiveness of these alternatives remain challenging. Scaling up production of alternative feeds (such as insect meal or plant-based proteins) to meet the demands of the aquaculture industry may take time.
- Disease management: Intensive aquaculture practices, particularly in closed systems, can create conditions conducive to the spread of diseases. Disease outbreaks pose a significant risk to the sustainability of aquaculture operations, necessitating effective disease management strategies that balance environmental concerns with the need for disease control.
- Certification challenges: While certification schemes such as the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) and Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) aim to promote sustainability, achieving and maintaining certification can be challenging and costly for some producers. Compliance with rigorous standards may require additional administrative efforts and dissuade some producers from participating. It can be especially difficult for small-scale aquaculture producers to fulfill requirements for certification, thus blocking access to markets in industrialized countries.
- Aquaponic systems can lack economic profitability and be less attractive to larger industrial operations; however, such systems can be suitable for small-scale farming operations with access to water testing technology and electricity.
- Risk of overfishing:
- To produce popular carnivorous fish such as salmon or sea bass, large quantities of smaller forage fish are caught and processed into fishmeal (i.e. ground fish) and fish oil. Some forage fish are being overfished in the process, which has implications for the entire food web.
- Next to, and as a consequence of, the negative impacts on the food web, overfishing especially threatens the food and nutritional security of coastal communities that depend on fishery products.
- Fishing of small fish for aquaculture feed also aggravates food insecurity for the local communities where it occurs, as the caught fish are of food quality and can provide important protein sources for local populations.
- Risks of marine aquaculture:
- Escape of non-native species or genetically modified fish can lead to competition for food and habitat between escaped farmed fish and native species.
- There can also be potential negative impact on genetic diversity of local fish population if farmed fish escape and breed with wild species.
- Contamination of the aquatic environment from use of drugs (e.g. antibiotics, hormones, anaesthetics, pigments or vitamins used to control health of farmed fish stock) and herbicides (used to control algae growth on net pens) produces negative impacts on local aquatic biodiversity and marine life.
- Nutrient pollution of aquatic environment from fish sewage (e.g. fish waste or leftover feedstuff): This may lead to oxygen depletion in the water, which can stress or kill aquatic creatures. In addition, nutrients sink to the ocean floor where they can impact biodiversity.
- Introduction of new diseases and parasites by fish stock: Fish crowded together in nets or pens are more susceptible to stress, which can foster disease and parasites that may then spread to wild species.
- Disadvantages of land-based aquaculture:
- Energy intensity:
- Certain sustainable practices, particularly those involving intensive recirculating systems, can be energy-intensive. The energy requirements for maintaining water quality and regulating environmental conditions may increase operational costs and contribute to the overall carbon footprint of aquaculture operations.
- Production systems like RAS and aquaponics require steady access to electricity. In many rural communities, there is either nonexistent or sporadic access to electricity, threatening the production system and making it unfeasible.
- Conversion, destruction, and depletion of terrestrial ecosystems:
- South America experiences high rates of deforestation to make land suitable for production of soybeans that are used as fish feed. The shift to alternative, predominantly plant-based feeds may even increase environmental concerns related to land use change for feedstock production.
- Worldwide, mangroves are being replaced by facilities for shrimp farming in salty coastal waters.
- Energy intensity:
- Land and water use conflicts: Competition for land and water resources can arise, particularly in areas with high population density or where aquaculture competes with other land uses. Balancing the needs of aquaculture with other sectors, such as agriculture and conservation, can be complex and may lead to conflicts over resource allocation.
Integrating the following measures into a comprehensive and cohesive can help address implementation challenges for enhanced outcomes:
- Many of the challenges mentioned above can be overcome by creating framework conditions that are favourable to sustainable aquaculture practices. This includes technical and financial support for small-scale producers, research and development related to stock health and alternative fish feedstuff, appropriate zoning, and selection of production sites or improved enforcement of relevant national legislation. See Strengthening land-use and freshwater governance.
- Land-based closed aquaculture systems may avoid some of the negative effects of marine aquaculture, including minimized pollution of local environment from waste and nutrients, no fish escapes and limited spread of disease. However, they can consume large amounts of fresh water, competing with other uses and natural ecosystems.
- Sustainable aquaculture operations must increase efficiency (e.g. by lowering on-farm energy usage; shifting to low-emissions energy sources; using or reusing durable, low-emissions materials for farming infrastructure) and reduce nutrient inputs and wastes that lead to greenhouse gas emissions, while also working toward carbon neutrality using biofuels and clean energy sources to power on-farm operations.
Effective tracking of the sustainable aquaculture management system implementation depends on strong monitoring tools, clear indicators, and structured frameworks that capture both implementation progress and related biodiversity and climate outcomes.
Indicators to monitor biodiversity outcomes
The Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity agreed to a comprehensive set of headline, component, and complementary indicators for tracking progress toward the targets of the KM-GBF. The following indicators could also be functional for monitoring the implementation of this policy option:
| KM-GBF Target | Headline or binary indicator | Optional disaggregation | Component indicator | Complementary indicator |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Target 1 | A.1 Red List of Ecosystems A.2 Extent of natural ecosystems 1.1 Percentage of land and sea area covered by biodiversity-inclusive spatial plans 1.b Number of countries using participatory, integrated and biodiversity-inclusive spatial planning and/or effective management processes addressing land- and sea-use change to bring the loss of areas of high biodiversity importance close to zero by 2030 | |||
| Target 7 | 7.1 Index of coastal eutrophication | For indicator 7.1: By type of nutrient By subbasin | ||
| Target 10 | 5.CY.3 Red List Index (impacts of fisheries) |
Tools to monitor biodiversity outcomes
Copernicus Marine Service Interdisciplinary Tools
Products from the Copernicus Marine Service provide fundamental support for sustainable practices in aquaculture and fisheries, as well as the monitoring of marine biodiversity to protect its health.
INNOVASEA BiomassPro
This AI-powered platform provides real-time estimation of fish stock size and weight, optimizing production and reducing feeding costs. It uses a groundbreaking biomass camera that combines AI technology with stereoscopic imaging to deliver real-time data to a user-friendly dashboard. BiomassPro offers autonomous monitoring of fish growth and size distribution, suitable for various facilities including open ocean, near-shore, and land-based locations.
NeuroSYS Farm Management Software for Aquaculture
The farm management software for aquaculture developed by NeuroSYS uses AI, machine learning, and advanced sensors to optimize various aspects of aquatic farming, including feeding processes, biomass estimation, disease detection, and environmental monitoring.
NOAA Fisheries Stock Assessment Model
NOAA Fisheries offers a wide variety of stock assessment models in its stock assessments.
Tools to monitor climate outcomes
YSI Multiparameter monitoring systems
YSI’s continuous multiparameter monitoring systems can measure Total Organic Carbon, sedimentation, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and salinity.
Sustainable aquaculture practices often involve significant upfront investment costs in inputs such as quality feed, fingerlings, land and advanced machinery. Although there are limited estimates of the costs of implementing specific sustainable aquaculture practices, the World Bank’s AquaInvest can serve as a good resource.
Some key examples of implementation efforts include:
- In the Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) project, shrimp farmers in Bangladesh and India are integrating mangrove trees directly into their breeding ponds. This method, known as Integrated Mangrove Aquaculture, combines shrimp farming with mangrove conservation. The mangrove trees provide multiple benefits: they stabilize the pond dams, protect against floods, offer shade, and create a habitat for shrimp in their root systems. Additionally, the shrimp feed on fallen mangrove leaves, creating a symbiotic relationship. This approach not only enhances biodiversity on the farms but also serves as a model for other farmers in the region, promoting sustainable aquaculture practices.
- From 2017 to 2024, in Madagascar’s highlands, a region with higher food and nutritional insecurity, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) through GIZ supported rice farmers to integrate fish farming into their operations. Rice-fish culture enables the direct addition of fish production into existing rice fields. Through trainings and practical examples, rice farmers learnt how to identify suitable rice fields, optimally use the fields for rice-fish farming, and produce quality fingerlings. Fertilizer and pesticide application was prohibited, as fish ate snails and insects while fish waste provided nutrients. On average, rice-carp farmers in the program were able to harvest 50 kilogram of fish in addition to the rice crop, and rice production increased by 10-20 percent.
- In Eastern Canada, the company Cooke Aquaculture Inc. is implementing Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture with support from the University of New Brunswick. The company farms species from different levels of the food web in an integrated manner. Blue mussels and kelp are raised downstream from salmon pens. The mussels feed on waste from the salmon while the kelp takes up inorganic nutrients. Sea urchins and sea cucumbers consume larger particles on the ocean floor. Salmon and mussels are sold as food while seaweeds are used in restaurants and cosmetics manufacturing.
- Ahmed, N. et al. (May 2017). Can greening of aquaculture sequester blue carbon? Ambio, 46(4), 468-477. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5385666/
- Anggoro, A. W., Castro, M., Ilman, M., Leavitt, S., Basir, Nirwan, M., et al. (2025). Conservation for production? The benefits of mangroves for sustainable shrimp aquaculture. Aquaculture International, 33(5), 377.
- Aquaculture Advisory Council Europe. (2024). Guidance Document on Fish Health Management. Retrieved February 26, 2026, from https://aac-europe.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/AAC-Report-Fish-Health-Management-2024.pdf
- Bolorunduro, P. I., Yunusa, A., Onimisi, H. U., Umar, R., Umar, B., & Idris, M. (2013). Integrated Aquaculture Technologies for Fish Farmers.pdf. Retrieved February 25, 2026, from https://naerls.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Integrated-Aquaculture-Technologies-for-Fish-Farmers.pdf
- Cho, R. (2016, April 13). Making Fish Farming More Sustainable. https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2016/04/13/making-fish-farming-more-sustainable/
- Dejas, R. (2022, March 18). A multi-stakeholder partnership for integrated mangrove aquaculture in the Sundarbans. Rural 21. Retrieved February 26, 2026, from https://www.rural21.com/english/news/detail/article/a-multi-stakeholder-partnership-for-integrated-mangrove-aquaculture-in-the-sundarbans.html
- FAO. (2011). Technical Guidelines on Aquaculture Certification. Retrieved February 26, 2026, from https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/47dcd1d9-2d35-4147-8e61-df9ed6800a20/content/i2296t.htm
- FAO. (2014). Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition: A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/350d9c16-fce5-4f85-9324-a41939bb3b89/content
- FAO. (2024, June 7). FAO Report: Global fisheries and aquaculture production reaches a new record high. https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/fao-report-global-fisheries-and-aquaculture-production-reaches-a-new-record-high/en
- FAO. (2025). Guidelines for sustainable aquaculture (GSA). https://www.fao.org/guidelines-sustainable-aquaculture/en
- GIZ. (2022). Sustainable Aquaculture in Madagascar. Retrieved February 26, 2026, from https://www.giz.de/en/downloads/giz2022-en-SEWOH.pdf
- HLPE (2023). Reducing inequalities for food security and nutrition. Rome, CFS HLPE-FSN. Available from https://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/insights/news-insights/news-detail/reducing-inequalities-for-food-security-and-nutrition/en.
- Jones, A. R. (February 2022). Climate-Friendly Seafood: The Potential for Emissions Reduction and Carbon Capture in Marine Aquaculture. BioScience, 72(2), 123-143. https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/72/2/123/6485038
- Khan, R. (2023). Sustainable Aquaculture Practices for Food Security and Livelihoods. International Journal of Agro Studies and Life Sciences, 2(2), 7-13. https://edupublications.com/index.php/ijasls/article/view/57
- Puri, M., Kojakovic, A., Rincon, L., Gallego, J., Vaskalis, I., & Maltsoglou, I. (2023). The small-scale fisheries and energy nexus: Opportunities for renewable energy interventions (FAO, Rome). https://doi.org/10.4060/cc4903en
- Ragasa, C. et al. (February 2022). Sustainable aquaculture development in sub-Saharan Africa. Nature Food, 3, 92-94. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00467-1
- Sagheer, M., Yang, Z., & Alsaleh, M. (2025). Determinants influencing green cost efficiency in the aquaculture sector: New insights from Asian countries. Marine Policy, 180, 106783.
- The Nature Conservancy. (2021). Global Principles of Restorative Aquaculture.
- UNEP-MAP RAC/SPA. (2012). Best practice guidelines for Aquaculture and sustainable management in Mediterranean coastal wetlands. Retrieved from https://www.rac-spa.org/sites/default/files/doc_fish/guidelines_wetland_2012.pdf
- World Bank. (2023, November 7). The AquaInvest Platform. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/the-aquainvest-platform
