Across every region of the planet, climate change is already driving weather and climate extremes that cause significant losses and damages to nature and people, with disproportionate impacts to vulnerable communities that have historically contributed the least to the climate crisis. Natural ecosystems provide multiple regulating, supporting, provisioning, and cultural services to agriculture and food systems. Climate change has caused substantial damages, and increasingly irreversible losses, in terrestrial, freshwater, cryospheric, coastal, and open ocean ecosystems, exposing millions of people to acute food insecurity and reduced water security. Each additional degree of temperature increase will exacerbate these impacts across food production systems, with the largest negative impacts seen in communities in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, Least Developed Countries, Small Islands and the Arctic, and globally for Indigenous peoples, small-scale food producers and low-income households.
Nature-positive approaches like ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) that use ecosystem management practices to reduce vulnerability of people and ecosystems to climate change are therefore powerful tools for increasing adaptation and resilience in agriculture and food systems. The sustainable management and restoration of ecosystems including forests, grasslands, wetlands, and coastal vegetation and food production approaches like agroecology, climate-smart agriculture, sustainable land management techniques, agroforestry, and indigenous and local farming and fishing practices increase food system resilience and have multiple benefits for nutrition, health, biodiversity, poverty alleviation, and climate change mitigation. These complementary practices support long-term productivity and ecosystem services such as pest control, soil health, pollination and buffering of temperature extremes.
Therefore, integrating ecosystem-based adaptation practices into development strategies, such as those focused on agriculture, natural resource management, infrastructure, and community livelihoods both in rural and urban areas, can improve livelihoods, food security, and water availability while strengthening the adaptive capacity of both communities and ecosystems. It also contributes to biodiversity conservation by promoting sustainable use of native species, enhancing habitats, and improving ecosystem connectivity.
A wide range of ecosystem-based adaptation practices can be applied and implemented in agriculture and food systems across sectors and areas like crop production, livestock, forestry, coastal, and urban areas to build their resilience and mitigate climate change impacts. Given that agriculture and food systems are embedded in nature and dependent on ecosystem services, practices across these areas are deeply intertwined and are expected to foster, directly or indirectly, the ability of food systems to provide sufficient healthy and nutritious food for all in a changing climate when implemented in a holistic manner. Below is an overview of these practices:
- Ecosystem-based adaptation practices in agriculture and forestry:
- Promote agroforestry and agro-silvopastoral systems that integrate crops, trees, and livestock to enhance drought resilience, carbon storage, and reduce heat stress on animals. Increase species diversity through intercropping and polycultures to improve ecological stability, limit pest and disease outbreaks, and support rapid recovery from climate shocks.
- Implement rotational grazing and farming practices to strengthen root systems and soil health, establish firebreaks with fire-resistant and fire-tolerant species, and thin vegetation in fire-prone areas to reduce wildfire risk.
- Support crop adaptation through artificial selection, participatory breeding programs, seed banks, and the use of drought-tolerant or alternative crop varieties, enhancing resilience and diversification.
- Improve water management by enhancing infiltration and storage, using ponds, wetlands, infiltration ditches, rooftop capture, drip irrigation, and water tanks; preserve forested hilltops to support humidity capture; maintain diverse vegetation on slopes and protect riparian zones, headwaters, and springs to safeguard water quality and prevent erosion.
- Avoid planting in flood-prone areas or use flood-tolerant species, improve drainage and erosion control with contour planting and vegetated strips, minimize soil disturbance by limiting equipment and livestock access in unstable areas, restore wetlands, and design water-storage structures as fire barriers.
- Apply integrated pest management to maintain ecosystem balance and protect biodiversity.
- Maintain soil organic matter, use cover crops, and minimize soil compaction through no-till or reduced-tillage practices to improve water infiltration, storage capacity, drainage, and reduce erosion.
- Utilize protected areas and Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (OECMs) to safeguard habitats and viable populations of vulnerable wild species like pollinators and natural pest controllers, while establishing ecological corridors to improve species connectivity and landscape movement.
- Ecosystem-based adaptation practices in coastal areas:
- Restore and protect coastal and marine ecosystems—including coral reefs, mangrove forests, wetlands, seagrasses, dunes, and oysters—using climate-resilient species and adaptive management to provide coastal protection and enhance habitat quality for fisheries.
- Designate highly protected no-take Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) that include corals resilient to bleaching and ocean acidification.
- Reduce land-based pollution, sedimentation, and other pressures such as habitat destruction and overfishing to increase ecosystem resilience alongside addressing climate change impacts.
- Incorporate climate risks like sea level rise, flooding, and storm damage into coastal planning, regulations, and policies (e.g., flood management, building codes, zoning).
- Establish migration corridors and support managed realignment for mangroves and wetlands to adapt to rising sea levels and prevent salinization.
- Enhance biodiversity and soil health by increasing plant species variety, especially salt-tolerant species, for farming, landscaping, and coastal parks.
- Implement sustainable water management practices, including sustainable extraction from coastal aquifers, scaling up rainwater harvesting, and promoting water conservation through demand management.
- Strengthen early warning systems, construct multipurpose shelters, develop evacuation routes, and raise community awareness to improve disaster preparedness and resilience.
- Enabling governance measures for implementing ecosystem-based adaptation in agricultural and forestry sectors:
- Improve supply chain (cold or dry storage and processing) with off-grid renewables for added-value products and premiums from certifications.
- Embrace circular economy principles, using “waste” (e.g., plant matter, manure, effluent) as inputs for energy, fertilizer, irrigation.
- Promote revolving microloans to implement EbA and cope with shocks.
- Procure ‘bundled index insurance’ to ensure recovery from shocks while promoting a shift to more resilient practices.
- Design restoration initiatives (in agroforestry, for example) with a focus on job creation.
- Build partnerships and networks with farmer associations to share information on EbA policies and climate coping strategies.
- Integrate communities and vulnerable groups into landscape planning and management to meet water, health, energy (fuelwood), and food needs and empower communities. Strengthen resource tenure (especially of women, Indigenous Peoples, low-income groups) while protecting against land grabbing.
- Develop sustainable livelihoods to increase opportunity costs of illegal forest use while buffering climate impacts on forestry employment.
- Ensure community participation in management, enforcement, and monitoring.
- Develop payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes. Forest owners can be paid to conserve forest ecosystems due to the services they provide to downstream communities and society.
- Explore forestry insurance to promote swift and adequate response to shocks.
- Enabling governance measures for implementing ecosystem-based adaptation in coastal areas:
- Explore resilience bonds and parametric reef and mangrove insurance to prevent and help recover from extreme weather events.
- Develop PES schemes to encourage ecosystem and fisheries conservation for coastal defence and marine ecosystem health.
- Improve supply chains to reduce waste and capture increase local added value of processed products, seeking sustainability certification with premiums to encourage better practices.
- Increase sustainability standards in international trade systems, prioritizing local food and nutrition security before economic revenues.
- Implement an Ecosystem-based Approach to Fisheries (EAF) and Aquaculture (EAA) that integrates ecological, social, and economic dimensions to promote sustainable and equitable use of marine resources, support community livelihoods, and restore flow of services such as fish spillover from no-take areas. Use the existing guidelines and tools of the EAF/EAA to support the planning and implementation process of EbA.
- Use revolving microloans or fisheries insurance to ease the transition to alternative economic activities or lessen the impacts of shocks to current livelihoods.
- Diversify to climate-resilient livelihoods: ecotourism, sustainable aquaculture, blue “carbon farming”.
- Integrate small-scale fisheries communities and vulnerable groups into marine spatial planning and fisheries management to meet food and nutrition, employment and social and gender equity needs, and empower coastal populations.
- Strengthen resource tenure (especially of women, indigenous peoples, small-scale fisheries communities, etc.) through granting of preferential access schemes, while protecting against ocean grabbing by stronger stakeholders of the Blue Economy.
Key tools and guides to support the successful implementation of Ecosystem-based adaptation can include:
Tools
ALivE (Adaptation, Livelihoods and Ecosystems) Planning Tool
This is a computer-based tool that helps identify and prioritize EbA options, design project activities, and establish key elements and indicators for monitoring and evaluation.
FAO Diagnostic Tool for Implementing an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Through Policy and Legal Frameworks
This diagnostic tool builds on the previous work of FAO by translating the 17 EAF components identified in the How-to Guide on legislating for an EAF into an EAF Legal Checklist for legal practitioners, policymakers and fisheries managers to use in conducting a preliminary assessment of selected policy and legal instruments and determining whether they are congruent an EAF.
FAO EAF Toolbox – The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries
Aimed at national and local fisheries management authorities, including fishery managers, scientists and stakeholders looking for practical solutions they can apply given their circumstances and resources.
FEBA EbA Tools Navigator
An interactive online catalogue of over 240 tools for EbA planning, implementation, and mainstreaming.
FEBA Framework for Defining Qualification Criteria and Quality Standards
Friends of EbA (FEBA) provides a framework for defining the qualification criteria and quality standards for EbA.
UNDRR Nature-Based Solutions for Comprehensive Disaster and Climate Risk Management: Toolkit for Integrated Planning and Implementation of Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation
This toolkit aims to support countries in making nature-based solutions an integral part of planning under the comprehensive disaster and climate risk management approach considering both disaster risk reduction and climate change.
GIZ Valuing the Benefits, Costs and Impacts of Ecosystem-based Adaptation Measures: A Sourcebook of Methods for Decision-Making
This serves as a practical sourcebook for EbA cost-benefit analyses. It details methods for identifying and quantifying the costs (resources needed for delivery and negative effects), benefits (positive outcomes), and impacts (changes following implementation). It emphasizes adapting valuation approaches to the project context and purpose, providing real-world examples, checklists, and best practices for economic and biophysical valuation.
Guides
Conservation International Guidelines for Designing, Implementing and Monitoring Ecosystem-based Adaptation Interventions
Guidelines for designing, implementing, and monitoring EbA interventions, outlining a five-step process to address climate threats, assess vulnerabilities, identify EbA options, select interventions, and design a monitoring and evaluation methodology.
CBD Guidelines for Ecosystem-based Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction
These guidelines build on a synthesis report on experiences with EbAs to climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction and are split into three sections; Summary for Policy-Makers, Guidelines for Practitioners, Outreach into Sectors.
FAO EbA in Agricultural Sectors: Context, Approaches and Lessons Learned
Offers guidance on implementing EbA in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries sectors to enhance food security and rural livelihoods.
GIZ Climate Risk Assessment for Ecosystem-based Adaptation
The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety provides a step-by-step approach for planners and practitioners on how to conduct climate risk assessments that integrate EbA to identify adaptation measures and support adaptation planning.
GIZ Conservation Standards for EbA (CoSEbA)
This document, developed by the German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, guides communities in understanding climate impacts, identifying adaptation interventions, and developing theories of change for EbA.
GIZ Toward Gender-responsive Ecosystem-based Adaptation
A report which highlights the importance of integrating gender considerations into EbA actions by providing practical guidance, building blocks, and case examples for practitioners and policymakers to implement gender-responsive ecosystem-based adaptation effectively.
IIED Handbook for EbA in Mountain, Dryland, and Coastal Ecosystems
The Institute for Environment and Development provides practical guidance for planning and implementing EbA interventions in vulnerable rural areas.
IUCN Governance for Ecosystem-based Adaptation
This paper analyzes the governance aspects of EbA projects. It explores the diversity of actors involved, the quality of governance arrangements, and the barriers and opportunities for enhancing EbA governance at different levels.
Mainstreaming the Ecosystem-based Adaptation approach into policy planning
The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety offers guidance for Central Asian policymakers on integrating EbA into policy planning to streamline adaptation efforts and minimize economic losses in a region vulnerable to climate change.
SEI Integrating ecosystem- and community-based adaptation: Lessons from Model Forests in Latin America
Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) provides guidance on lessons learned from integrating ecosystem- and community-based adaptation.
UNDRR Good practices for increasing the application of Nature-based solutions and ecosystem-based approaches for disaster risk reduction
The cases presented here provide valuable insights into the effectiveness and versatility of NbS, underscoring that working with nature is key to the successful implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 and related frameworks and agendas, including the 2030 Agenda and its Sustainable Development Goals, the Paris Agreement, and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
UNEP Guidelines for Integrating Ecosystem-based Adaptation into National Adaptation Plans
Provides guidelines for integrating Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) into National Adaptation Plans (NAPs), supplementing the UNFCCC NAP Technical Guidelines.
Strengthening ecosystem-based adaptation can create synergies between climate adaptation, biodiversity conservation, and mitigation, thereby contributing to the targets of the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Climate change mitigation benefits
EbA approaches can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions caused by land-use conversion, while enhancing carbon sequestration in vegetation and soils. Natural systems such as forests, grasslands, peatlands, and wetlands act as carbon sinks, and reduced emissions can be achieved through interventions that maintain or enhance these ecosystems.
Climate change adaptation benefits
EbA primarily focuses on enhancing ecological and social resilience to the disruptive consequences of climate change. As such, climate change adaptation is the most tangible outcome of EbA interventions. Among the seven key targets of adaptation put forward in the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience, EbA can directly contribute to:
- Target 9a (Water & Sanitation): EbA enhances water security by restoring wetlands, forests, and natural water cycles, which improves water quality, regulates flow, and replenishes groundwater. These nature-based solutions reduce climate-induced water scarcity, lower the risk of floods and droughts, and help safeguard safe and reliable water supply and sanitation services.
- Target 9b (Food & Agriculture): EbA supports climate-resilient agriculture by improving soil health and biodiversity, increasing sustainable food production and equitable access to nutrition. Additionally, EbA enhances the resilience of fisheries and coastal regions by protecting marine ecosystems, reducing coastal erosion, and supporting sustainable livelihoods for coastal communities. According to the IPCC, EbA measures enhance multiple ecosystem services that are likely to boost climate change adaptation in productive land/water/seascapes. These include:
- Water regulation and provision: Buffering the impacts of climate extremes such as droughts and floods, stabilizing agricultural yields and safeguarding livelihoods.
- Soil health: Improving soil health, organic matter content, enhancing water retention, nutrient cycling, and overall ecosystem resilience essential for sustained productivity.
- Climate and hazard regulation: Improving local climate regulation, regulation of wildfires, coastal storm and flood protection, and coastal erosion control.
- Biological pest control: Fostering biodiversity by supporting natural dynamics for pest regulation can foster agricultural resilience and reduce dependence on synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
- Diversification of production: Diversifying production systems can increase resilience against climate shocks and decrease the risk of widespread crop failure. Furthermore, the use of locally adapted crop and livestock varieties can strengthen food security and food sovereignty for smallholder farmers.
- Target 9c (Health): EbA reduces climate-related health risks by supporting ecosystem services that improve air quality, regulate temperature, and control the spread of vector-borne diseases. By buffering extreme heat, reducing pollution, and enhancing mental and physical well-being through access to green spaces, EbA contributes to healthier, more climate-resilient communities, especially those most vulnerable.
- Target 9d (Ecosystems): EbA protects and restores ecosystems by maintaining biodiversity, enhancing ecological connectivity, and strengthening the capacity of natural systems to adapt to climate change. Through nature-based solutions, it safeguards critical ecosystem services, such as water filtration, carbon storage, and habitat provision, while reducing climate-related pressures on species and landscapes.
- Target 9e (Infrastructure): EbA increases the resilience of infrastructure and human settlements by integrating natural buffers such as mangroves, wetlands, and urban green spaces to reduce climate-related risks like flooding, erosion, and heat stress, protecting physical assets, supporting climate-resilient urban planning, and enhancing the safety and well-being of communities.
- Target 9f (Livelihoods): EbA promotes adaptive and sustainable livelihoods by supporting ecosystem-based jobs, such as in sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries, while strengthening community capacity to cope with climate shocks. By maintaining the natural resources that many depend on for income and food, EbA helps reduce poverty and build long-term socioeconomic resilience.
- Target 9g (Cultural Heritage): By preserving traditional landscapes, sustaining ecosystem practices tied to cultural identity, and integrating Indigenous and local knowledge into climate adaptation, EbA helps safeguard cultural heritage, particularly in the face of climate change.
Biodiversity benefits
Action under this policy option can help to deliver on several KM-GBF targets, in particular:
- Target 1 (Plan and Manage all Areas To Reduce Biodiversity Loss): EbA approaches require participatory, integrated, and biodiversity-inclusive spatial planning, along with effective management processes, to mitigate climate-related risks. Their adoption would directly support this Target of the KM-GBF while preserving areas of high ecological integrity, enhancing resilience at site, landscape, and regional scales.
- Target 2 (Restore 30% of all Degraded Ecosystems): The implementation of EbA practices directly supports this Target by restoring degraded ecosystems, supporting the livelihoods of local communities, and strengthening their resilience to climate change.
- Target 3 ( Conserve 30% of Land, Waters and Seas): By integrating conservation with climate resilience, EbA supports equitable, area-based approaches, such as community-managed forests, coastal wetlands, and marine protected areas, that sustain both biodiversity and human well-being.
- Target 7 (Reduce Pollution to Levels That Are Not Harmful to Biodiversity): EbA can significantly contribute to reducing pollution, particularly from agricultural sources. By promoting sustainable land management practices, EbA can help reduce soil erosion and excess nutrients lost to the environment. In coastal and marine ecosystems, EbA approaches such as the protection and restoration of mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs also play a vital role in reducing pollution by stabilizing sediments, filtering water, and regulating nutrient flows. Effective actions include restoring natural hydrology, managing resource harvesting, reducing land- and sea-based pollution, and replanting native species in suitable environments.
- Target 8 (Minimize the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Build Resilience): EbA strategies significantly contribute to both climate change mitigation and adaptation and are therefore crucial to make significant progress towards this Target of the KM-GBF.
- Target 10 (Enhance Biodiversity and Sustainability in Agriculture, Aquaculture, Fisheries, and Forestry): EbA interventions are at the interface of ecosystems and production systems. Measures like restoration, rehabilitation, watershed conservation, integrated coastal management, agroecological approaches, and the use of grey and green infrastructure directly enhance the sustainability of agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries and forestry, while also improving the capacity of these systems to support biodiversity through the sustainable use of native species, enhancing habitats, and improving ecosystem connectivity.
- Target 11 (Restore, Maintain and Enhance Nature’s Contributions to People): EbA enhances nature’s contributions by restoring and protecting ecosystems as it supports water regulation, erosion control, and habitat provision – crucial for well-being and climate resilience. In coastal and marine areas, actions like restoring mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs stabilize sediments, filter water, regulate nutrients, and protect shorelines. These locally tailored efforts also engage communities, support livelihoods, and contribute to climate mitigation through blue carbon storage.
- Target 14 (Integrate Biodiversity in Decision-Making at Every Level): By integrating biodiversity conservation with climate adaptation strategies, EbA helps mainstream biodiversity considerations into development planning. This approach ensures that biodiversity protection is considered alongside other development goals.
Other sustainable development benefits
EbA integrates biodiversity and ecosystem services into adaptation strategies, offering a comprehensive approach that addresses multiple environmental and social challenges simultaneously. In particular, increased ecosystem-based adaptation can help contribute to the progress of the following SDGs, as demonstrated by this worldwide case study report:
- SDG 1 (No Poverty): EbA approaches can reduce poverty by lowering production costs through efficient use of resources and providing additional income opportunities from ecosystem services.
- SDG 2 (Zero Hunger): By promoting sustainable agricultural practices and enhancing ecosystem services, EbA strategies improve food security and reduce climate-based risks for local communities.
- SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation): EbA practices, such as water-saving irrigation measures and prevention of water pollution, contribute to the sustainable management of water resources.
- SDG 13 (Climate Action): EbA strategies directly address climate change by enhancing carbon sequestration through soil management and vegetation restoration, as well as blue carbon in wetlands and coastal ecosystems, while also increasing the resilience of ecosystems and communities to climate impacts.
- SDG 14 (Life below Water): By protecting and actively restoring coastal ecosystems, EbA approaches contribute to increased resilience and biodiversity of marine ecosystems.
- SDG 15 (Life on Land): EbA approaches support biodiversity conservation and sustainable ecosystem management in landscapes.
- SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions): By incorporating Indigenous and local knowledge and promoting community-based adaptation, EbA strategies advance inclusive societies and reduce inequalities.
The success of ecosystem-based adaptation activities in food systems depends on thoughtful design and effective implementation, which can be challenged by a range of technical and non-technical factors, including:
- EbA interventions face challenges related to technical uncertainties and scalability, though their replicability remains a key strength. EbA solutions are inherently context-dependent, requiring tailored approaches for different ecosystems (e.g., coastal mangroves, mountainous regions). While this ensures relevance, it complicates large-scale implementation. For instance, pilot projects in specific settings often struggle to inform broader policies due to variability in ecological and socio-economic conditions.
- Measuring the results of changes in ecosystem management is inherently complex and long-term. Ecosystems are influenced by multiple drivers, and their impacts can take decades to fully manifest, making it difficult to assess the immediate success of EbA measures.
- Effective implementation of EbA requires robust policy frameworks and governance structures. However, existing policies may not fully support EbA, and there may be a lack of coordination between different sectors and levels of government.
- Securing adequate funding for EbA projects remains a significant challenge. The initial investment required for ecosystem restoration and sustainable land management can be substantial, and long-term financial support is often lacking.
- Sustaining motivations levels throughout the adaptation process, especially at the community level, remains difficult. Limited technical capacity and knowledge among key local actors contributes to this problem.
- Communities and governments often prioritize their more immediate needs, but strengthening ecosystems and adapting to climate change both generally involve longer time frames.
- There are often trade-offs between different ecosystem services. For example, measures aimed at enhancing biodiversity may sometimes conflict with those aimed at increasing short-term agricultural productivity, since increased biodiversity often delivers long-term, multi-scale benefits.
- Agricultural practices, while essential for food security, can generate negative externalities such as greenhouse gas emissions, soil degradation, and water pollution. Although EbA offers sustainable alternatives by promoting practices that enhance ecosystem health, these externalities need to be carefully managed to ensure that EbA does not inadvertently harm other aspects of the environment.
- In rural landscapes, there is a constant need to balance economic development with ecological protection. This balance is particularly challenging in regions undergoing rapid urbanization and industrialization. The trade-offs between economic growth and environmental conservation must be carefully navigated to achieve sustainable outcomes.
Including the following measures in the comprehensive and holistic design of ecosystem-based adaptation projects for food systems can help minimize trade-offs and overcome challenges during implementation:
- Investing in research to better understand the complex interactions between ecosystems and human activities can improve the effectiveness of EbA measures. Collaboration with international organizations and academic institutions can provide access to advanced scientific knowledge and technical expertise.
- Implementing adaptive management processes, which involve continuously reassessing the performance of an intervention based on new information, can help manage uncertainties and risks. Robust monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems are essential for tracking the effectiveness of EbA measures and making necessary adjustments. Making M&E participatory is also crucial to managing short-termism, waning motivation, and equity concerns.
- Integrating EbA into existing policies and governance structures can help overcome resistance from institutions. Engaging stakeholders in the planning and implementation process can build support and ensure that EbA measures are aligned with local needs and priorities.
- Engaging with international funding agencies and securing grants or loans can help overcome initial financial barriers. Advocating for increased domestic budget allocation to EbA initiatives can ensure sustained financial support.
- Use ecosystem services in a way that meets society’s diverse requirements and objectives while simultaneously maintaining natural capital in the long term. This involves carefully navigating the trade-offs between economic growth and environmental conservation.
Effective monitoring and evaluation of ecosystem-based adaptation projects requires robust tools, well-defined indicators, and comprehensive frameworks, particularly for assessing progress and outcomes related to biodiversity and climate resilience.
Indicators to monitor biodiversity outcomes
The Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity agreed to a comprehensive set of headline, component, and complementary indicators for tracking progress toward the targets of the KM-GBF. Some of these indicators could also be functional for monitoring the implementation of this policy option. These indicators are:
| KM-GBF Target | Headline or binary indicator | Optional disaggregations | Component indicator | Complementary indicator |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Target 1 | A.1 Red List of Ecosystems A.2 Extent of natural ecosystems 1.1 Percentage of land and sea area covered by biodiversity-inclusive spatial plans 1.b Number of countries using participatory, integrated and biodiversity-inclusive spatial planning and/or effective management processes addressing land- and sea-use change to bring the loss of areas of high biodiversity importance close to zero by 2030 | |||
| Target 2 | 2.1 Area under restoration | By ecosystem functional group (Global Ecosystem Typology levels 2 and 3 or equivalent) By indigenous and traditional territories By protected areas or other effective area-based conservation measures By type of restoration activity | 2.CT.1 Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area | 2.CY.1 Global Ecosystem Restoration Index |
| Target 7 | 7.CT.1 Cropland nutrient budget | 7.CY.1 Trends in loss of reactive nitrogen to the environment. 7.CY.2 Trends in nitrogen deposition 7.CY.6 Pesticide use per area of cropland | ||
| Target 8 | 8.CT.2 Bioclimatic Ecosystem Resilience Index | 8.CY.2 National greenhouse gas inventories from land use, land-use change and forestry | ||
| Target 10 | 10.1 Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture | For indicator 10.1: By household and non-household sector farms By crops and livestock | 10.CY.1 Agrobiodiversity Index 10.CY.2 Soil organic carbon stocks A.CY.19 Red List Index (wild relatives of domesticated animals) B.CY.2 Red List Index (pollinating species) 4.CT.4Proportion of local breeds classified as being at risk of extinction 2.CT.1Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area | |
| Target 11 | B.1 Services provided by ecosystems | |||
| Target 14 | 14.b Number of countries integrating biodiversity and its multiple values into policies, regulations, planning, development processes, poverty eradication strategies and, as appropriate, national accounts, within and across all levels and across all sectors, and progressively aligning all relevant public and private activities and fiscal and financial flows with the goals and targets of the Framework | 14.CT.1 Integration of biodiversity into national accounting and reporting systems, defined as implementation of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting |
Tools to monitor biodiversity outcomes
PRISM Toolkit
Originally developed for conservation projects, this toolkit includes modules on species and habitat management and provides over 60 practical methods for data collection and analysis.
Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool (SMART)
Consists of a set of software and analysis tools designed to help conservationists manage and protect wildlife and wild places, used to empower local actors and align with equitable governance goals.
BioMonitor4CAP
The EU-funded BioMonitor4CAP project will design advanced biodiversity monitoring systems that can support the implementation of results-based policies in the European agricultural landscapes.
Tools to monitor climate outcomes
Climate-ADAPT Monitoring Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC) Tool
This Excel-based tool for monitoring climate change adaptation projects is designed for defining up to 15 intended results with up to three indicators each, and uses a theory of change approach to monitor climate adaptation projects. The tool can be used to directly enter monitoring data and keep an overview of project progress.
Climate-ADAPT AdaptME Toolkit
This toolkit helps in designing robust evaluations for adaptation activities. It includes useful sections on selecting indicators and provides links to additional resources.
Climate-ADAPT Guidebook for Monitoring and Evaluating Ecosystem-based Adaptation Interventions
This book provides guidance on developing indicators, baselines, and targets for monitoring biodiversity outcomes in EbA projects.
CARE Participatory monitoring, evaluation, reflection and learning for community-based adaptation (PMERL)
PMERL provides participatory strategies to help different groups and organisations affected by, or involved in, a community-based adaptation project, community action plan or similar to assess their effectiveness in achieving their objectives, including climate change adaptation.
Framework for Monitoring Ecosystems-Based Adaptation to Climate Change
This framework is designed to support day-to-day project management, build project data and high-level KPIs, and provide a geo-spatial platform for capturing and visualizing project data.
IUCN Ecosystem Based Adaptation Monitoring & Evaluation Indicators and Frameworks
Developed to measure progress and effectiveness of EbA projects, including indicators that reflect ecosystem health and climate change adaptation.
EbA is often more cost-effective than traditional engineered solutions and can provide long-term benefits at lower costs, making it an attractive option for resource-constrained communities. Implementation costs are context-specific and thus vary, but some regional examples are as follows:
- In Tajikistan, a project aimed at enhancing climate resilience for small-scale farmers and pastoralists through an integrated landscape approach has allocated USD 7.2 million specifically for EbA, including climate-smart agriculture and sustainable land management in agroecological landscapes.
- An example from Benin shows that the implementation cost for EbA in forest and agricultural landscapes is USD 10 million. This project covered seven municipalities and rehabilitated 3,600 hectares of land.
- This IUCN report on the Philippines provides EbA case studies with cost-benefit analyses. For example, restoring mangroves was estimated at approximately USD 8,240/hectare in the first year (for replanting) and USD 118/hectare annually for maintenance, with distinct valuations for avoided damages, fisheries, and livelihood improvements. Another cited case study placed total watershed development costs between USD 1-1.4 million.
Notable examples of ecosystem-based adaptation interventions at the global level include:
- An EbA project was implemented from 2017 to 2022 across transboundary mountain ecosystems in Nepal, Bhutan, Peru, Colombia, Kenya, and Uganda. It aimed to enhance climate resilience and reduce vulnerabilities of local communities and ecosystems. In Nepal’s Panchase region, it promoted EbA practices like conserving water sources and ponds, and organic farming. This led to increased water availability and improved livelihoods. In Peru’s Miraflores, the project restored an ancient water management system and improved livestock management, resulting in higher incomes for farmers. In Uganda’s Mount Elgon area, agroforestry practices were consolidated, reducing soil erosion and enhancing food security. These efforts improved local livelihoods and contributed to climate resilience and biodiversity conservation by promoting sustainable land and water management practices.
- A project to scale up EbA measures in rural Latin America, being implemented from November 2020 to July 2026, aims to increase the resilience of vulnerable communities and ecosystems in rural areas of Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Guatemala. Funded by the International Climate Initiative (IKI) with EUR 20 million, the project develops and implements innovative and cost-effective EbA approaches, trains over 300 leaders to facilitate multi-sector negotiations, and leverages over USD 3.4 million for scaling up gender-responsive EbA measures on approximately 2,500 hectares of land. The project ensures long-term impact through innovative financial instruments and finance training, improved governance, and knowledge exchange, contributing to adaptation and biodiversity conservation.
- In Ecuador, it trains women in improving cacao yield efficiency and resilience.
- In Guatemala, it holds workshops to integrate EbA into planning instruments and supports ancestral agroforestry practices.
- In Costa Rica, it facilitates multi-stakeholder planning for integrated landscape management and develops decision support tools.
- An EbA project to build resilience of communities living in 8 climate-vulnerable landscapes in Namibia was launched in November 2020. This initiative, funded by the Green Climate Fund and implemented by the Environmental Investment Fund of Namibia, aims to increase landscape productivity across eight targeted areas. The project focuses on maintaining and enhancing ecosystem integrity to support food and income generation for vulnerable rural households. Activities include restoring and maintaining biodiversity, increasing habitat connectivity, and restoring ecosystems’ capacity to regulate water cycles. The project, set to run until 2026, emphasizes building resilient communities through ecosystem restoration and maintenance.
- In The Gambia, a large-scale EbA project was implemented in 2020, funded by the Green Climate Fund and led by the Government of The Gambia in partnership with ICRAF. The project focused on developing a climate-resilient, natural resource-based economy by rehabilitating over 10,000 hectares of degraded landscapes and improving the lives of over 11,000 people. Key EbA practices included enrichment planting, vegetable gardening, beekeeping, and ecotourism. The project utilized the Adaptation, Livelihoods, and Ecosystem Planning Tool (ALivE ) to engage communities in the participatory development of EbA options, ensuring gender inclusivity and alignment with local values and preferences. Challenges in implementing EbA practices included gender disparities in preferences and resource access, financial constraints for establishing related enterprises, and the need for supportive policy and institutional frameworks to ensure sustainability.
- A community-led EbA project in biodiverse forest landscapes in Viet Nam implemented by IIED and the Viet Nam Farmers Union (VNFU). This initiative, which ran from 2022 to 2025, aimed to reduce climate risk and improve livelihoods for farmers in upland areas, with a particular focus on Indigenous Peoples and local communities. The project addressed climate change impacts such as more frequent and intense droughts, cyclones, typhoons, and crop pest and disease outbreaks. Key EbA measures included diversifying farming practices, sustainable land management, and restoration of degraded areas. These approaches were designed to increase resilience to climatic changes while maintaining the region’s rich biodiversity and enhancing the adaptive capacity of local communities, while simultaneously protecting and restoring the ecosystems they depend on.
- The following sources compile additional examples of EbA initiatives:
- The UNDP maintains a database of EbA case studies to showcase innovative approaches in various contexts, including rural areas.
- This GIZ report details case studies on EbA and Nature-based Insurance Solutions in the Philippines and other Asian countries.
- This UNEP report details good practice case studies on EbA that highlight innovative approaches and lessons learned from various climate adaptation projects around the world.
- Anzaldúa, G., Gerdes, H., Frelih-Larsen, D. A., Davis, M., Berry, P., Burch, S., & Sanders, M. (2011). Assessment of the Potential of Ecosystem-based Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Europe (Report) [Report]. Retrieved February 6, 2025, from https://www.ecologic.eu/17774
- Browder, G., Bescos, I., Gartner,T., Lange, G. ,Ozment, S. (2019). Integrating Green and Gray : Creating Next Generation Infrastructure [Text/HTML]. World Bank. Retrieved March 14, 2025, from https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/en/680391553111128576
- CBD. (2010). UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/33. Retrieved March 14, 2025, from https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-10/cop-10-dec-33-en.pdf
- FAO. (2020). Ecosystem-based adaptation in the Agriculture Sector: A nature-based solution (NbS) for building the resilience of the food and agriculture sector to climate change. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c98872f8-0d2c-47aa-b916-ea8c3743df00/content
- GIZ. (2022a). Key themes for ecosystem-based adaptation. Retrieved from https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/EbA_Solutions-in-Focus_final.pdf
- GIZ. (2022b). Synergies between adaptation, biodiversity and mitigation. Retrieved from https://www.giz.de/fachexpertise/downloads/giz2024-en-eba-synergies.pdf
- GIZ. (2023). Agroecology – Making Ecosystem-based Adaptation Work in Agricultural Landscapes. Retrieved March 13, 2025, from https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/New-Publication-2023-GIZ-Agroecology-EbA-Agricultural-Lanscapes.pdf
- GIZ, UNEP-WCMC, FEBA. (2020). Guidebook for Monitoring and Evaluating Ecosystem-based Adaptation Interventions. Retrieved from https://www.giz.de/expertise/downloads/giz2024-en-me-guidebook-eba.pdf
- Gomes, A. (2024). An integrated landscape approach to enhancing the climate resilience of small-scale farmers and pastoralists in Tajikistan. Adaptation Fund. Retrieved February 6, 2025, from https://www.adaptation-fund.org/project/integrated-landscape-approach-enhancing-climate-resilience-small-scale-farmers-pastoralists-tajikistan-2/
- IKI. (2025). Scaling-up Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) measures in rural Latin America. Retrieved February 7, 2025, from https://www.international-climate-initiative.com/en/project/scaling-up-ecosystem-based-adaptation-eba-measures-in-rural-latin-america-20-ii-176-mlam-g-eba-rural-areas/
- IKI. (n.d.). Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA). Retrieved February 4, 2025, from https://www.international-climate-initiative.com/en/funding-priorities/ecosystem-based-adaptation-eba/
- IPCC. (2022a). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/
- IPCC. (2022b). Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities (1st ed.). Retrieved February 6, 2025, from https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009157940/type/book
- IUCN. (2009). Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA). Retrieved from https://iucn.org/sites/default/files/import/downloads/iucn_position_paper_eba_june_09_3.pdf
- Kanter, D., Möhring, N., Leadley, P., Aziz, T., Castro, I., Maggi, F., et al. (2022). POLLUTION. Science briefs on targets, goals and monitoring in support of the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework negotiations.
- McSherry, M., Davis, R. P., Andradi-Brown, D. A., Ahmadia, G. N., Van Kempen, M., & Wingard Brian, S. (2023). Integrated mangrove aquaculture: The sustainable choice for mangroves and aquaculture? Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 6. Retrieved November 29, 2024, from https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/forests-and-global-change/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2023.1094306/full
- Olowoyeye, T., Abegunrin, G., & Sojka, M. (2024). Are Agroecosystem Services Under Threat? Examining the Influence of Climate Externalities on Ecosystem Stability. Atmosphere, 15(12), 1480.
- Power, A. G. (2010). Ecosystem services and agriculture: tradeoffs and synergies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1554), 2959–2971.
- Reid, H., Jones, X. H., Porras, I., Hicks, C., Wicander, S., Seddon, N., et al. (2019). Is ecosystem-based adaptation effective?
- Resilient Caribbean Communities. (2023). The Approach | Ecosystem-based Adaptation to increase resilience against climate change. Retrieved February 6, 2025, from https://ccr-project.com/approach_en/
- Schröter-Schlaack, C., Albert, C., Haaren, C. von, Hansjürgens, B., Krätzig, S., & Albert, I. (2016). Ecosystem services in rural areas: basis for human wellbeing and sustainable economic development: summary for decision-makers.
- Stockholm Environment Insitute. (2015). Integrating ecosystem- and community-based adaptation: Lessons from Model Forests in Latin America. Retrieved from https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate/SEI-DB-2015-EcoAdapt-ecosystems-community-adaptation.pdf
- UNDP. (2025). Ecosystem-Based Adaptation | UNDP Climate Change Adaptation. Retrieved February 4, 2025, from https://www.adaptation-undp.org/ecosystem-based-adaptation
- UNEP (2022, April 22). Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Benin | UNEP – UN Environment Programme. Retrieved February 6, 2025, from https://www.unep.org/ecosystem-based-adaptation-benin
- UNEP. (2022a). Coastal Ecosystem-based Adaptation: How Nature Protects Our Shores. Retrieved from https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40407/Coastal_EbA.pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y
- UNEP. (2022b). Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Forestry. Retrieved from https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40406/EbA_Forestry.pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y
- UNEP. (2022c). Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Agriculture: A Path to Climate-resilient Food Systems. Retrieved from https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/40405
- UNEP. (2024). A Decade of Ecosystem-based Adaptation: Lessons from the United Nations Environment Programme – Policy Brief. Retrieved March 14, 2025, from https://wedocs.unep.org/xmlui/handle/20.500.11822/45028
